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8. Classes and Objects

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2023-09-04 22:03:09
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  • Python Cookbook
  • Preface
    • Who This Book Is For
    • Who This Book Is Not For
    • Conventions Used in This Book
    • Online Code Examples
    • Using Code Examples
    • Safari® Books Online
    • How to Contact Us
    • Acknowledgments
  • 1. Data Structures and Algorithms
    • 1.1. Unpacking a Sequence into Separate Variables
    • 1.2. Unpacking Elements from Iterables of Arbitrary Length
    • 1.3. Keeping the Last N Items
    • 1.4. Finding the Largest or Smallest N Items
    • 1.5. Implementing a Priority Queue
    • 1.6. Mapping Keys to Multiple Values in a Dictionary
    • 1.7. Keeping Dictionaries in Order
    • 1.8. Calculating with Dictionaries
    • 1.9. Finding Commonalities in Two Dictionaries
    • 1.10. Removing Duplicates from a Sequence while Maintaining Order
    • 1.11. Naming a Slice
    • 1.12. Determining the Most Frequently Occurring Items in a Sequence
    • 1.13. Sorting a List of Dictionaries by a Common Key
    • 1.14. Sorting Objects Without Native Comparison Support
    • 1.15. Grouping Records Together Based on a Field
    • 1.16. Filtering Sequence Elements
    • 1.17. Extracting a Subset of a Dictionary
    • 1.18. Mapping Names to Sequence Elements
    • 1.19. Transforming and Reducing Data at the Same Time
    • 1.20. Combining Multiple Mappings into a Single Mapping
  • 2. Strings and Text
    • 2.1. Splitting Strings on Any of Multiple Delimiters
    • 2.2. Matching Text at the Start or End of a String
    • 2.3. Matching Strings Using Shell Wildcard Patterns
    • 2.4. Matching and Searching for Text Patterns
    • 2.5. Searching and Replacing Text
    • 2.6. Searching and Replacing Case-Insensitive Text
    • 2.7. Specifying a Regular Expression for the Shortest Match
    • 2.8. Writing a Regular Expression for Multiline Patterns
    • 2.9. Normalizing Unicode Text to a Standard Representation
    • 2.10. Working with Unicode Characters in Regular Expressions
    • 2.11. Stripping Unwanted Characters from Strings
    • 2.12. Sanitizing and Cleaning Up Text
    • 2.13. Aligning Text Strings
    • 2.14. Combining and Concatenating Strings
    • 2.15. Interpolating Variables in Strings
    • 2.16. Reformatting Text to a Fixed Number of Columns
    • 2.17. Handling HTML and XML Entities in Text
    • 2.18. Tokenizing Text
    • 2.19. Writing a Simple Recursive Descent Parser
    • 2.20. Performing Text Operations on Byte Strings
  • 3. Numbers, Dates, and Times
    • 3.1. Rounding Numerical Values
    • 3.2. Performing Accurate Decimal Calculations
    • 3.3. Formatting Numbers for Output
    • 3.4. Working with Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Integers
    • 3.5. Packing and Unpacking Large Integers from Bytes
    • 3.6. Performing Complex-Valued Math
    • 3.7. Working with Infinity and NaNs
    • 3.8. Calculating with Fractions
    • 3.9. Calculating with Large Numerical Arrays
    • 3.10. Performing Matrix and Linear Algebra Calculations
    • 3.11. Picking Things at Random
    • 3.12. Converting Days to Seconds, and Other Basic Time Conversions
    • 3.13. Determining Last Friday’s Date
    • 3.14. Finding the Date Range for the Current Month
    • 3.15. Converting Strings into Datetimes
    • 3.16. Manipulating Dates Involving Time Zones
  • 4. Iterators and Generators
    • 4.1. Manually Consuming an Iterator
    • 4.2. Delegating Iteration
    • 4.3. Creating New Iteration Patterns with Generators
    • 4.4. Implementing the Iterator Protocol
    • 4.5. Iterating in Reverse
    • 4.6. Defining Generator Functions with Extra State
    • 4.7. Taking a Slice of an Iterator
    • 4.8. Skipping the First Part of an Iterable
    • 4.9. Iterating Over All Possible Combinations or Permutations
    • 4.10. Iterating Over the Index-Value Pairs of a Sequence
    • 4.11. Iterating Over Multiple Sequences Simultaneously
    • 4.12. Iterating on Items in Separate Containers
    • 4.13. Creating Data Processing Pipelines
    • 4.14. Flattening a Nested Sequence
    • 4.15. Iterating in Sorted Order Over Merged Sorted Iterables
    • 4.16. Replacing Infinite while Loops with an Iterator
  • 5. Files and I/O
    • 5.1. Reading and Writing Text Data
    • 5.2. Printing to a File
    • 5.3. Printing with a Different Separator or Line Ending
    • 5.4. Reading and Writing Binary Data
    • 5.5. Writing to a File That Doesn’t Already Exist
    • 5.6. Performing I/O Operations on a String
    • 5.7. Reading and Writing Compressed Datafiles
    • 5.8. Iterating Over Fixed-Sized Records
    • 5.9. Reading Binary Data into a Mutable Buffer
    • 5.10. Memory Mapping Binary Files
    • 5.11. Manipulating Pathnames
    • 5.12. Testing for the Existence of a File
    • 5.13. Getting a Directory Listing
    • 5.14. Bypassing Filename Encoding
    • 5.15. Printing Bad Filenames
    • 5.16. Adding or Changing the Encoding of an Already Open File
    • 5.17. Writing Bytes to a Text File
    • 5.18. Wrapping an Existing File Descriptor As a File Object
    • 5.19. Making Temporary Files and Directories
    • 5.20. Communicating with Serial Ports
    • 5.21. Serializing Python Objects
  • 6. Data Encoding and Processing
    • 6.1. Reading and Writing CSV Data
    • 6.2. Reading and Writing JSON Data
    • 6.3. Parsing Simple XML Data
    • 6.4. Parsing Huge XML Files Incrementally
    • 6.5. Turning a Dictionary into XML
    • 6.6. Parsing, Modifying, and Rewriting XML
    • 6.7. Parsing XML Documents with Namespaces
    • 6.8. Interacting with a Relational Database
    • 6.9. Decoding and Encoding Hexadecimal Digits
    • 6.10. Decoding and Encoding Base64
    • 6.11. Reading and Writing Binary Arrays of Structures
    • 6.12. Reading Nested and Variable-Sized Binary Structures
    • 6.13. Summarizing Data and Performing Statistics
  • 7. Functions
    • 7.1. Writing Functions That Accept Any Number of Arguments
    • 7.2. Writing Functions That Only Accept Keyword Arguments
    • 7.3. Attaching Informational Metadata to Function Arguments
    • 7.4. Returning Multiple Values from a Function
    • 7.5. Defining Functions with Default Arguments
    • 7.6. Defining Anonymous or Inline Functions
    • 7.7. Capturing Variables in Anonymous Functions
    • 7.8. Making an N-Argument Callable Work As a Callable with Fewer Arguments
    • 7.9. Replacing Single Method Classes with Functions
    • 7.10. Carrying Extra State with Callback Functions
    • 7.11. Inlining Callback Functions
    • 7.12. Accessing Variables Defined Inside a Closure
  • 8. Classes and Objects
    • 8.1. Changing the String Representation of Instances
    • 8.2. Customizing String Formatting
    • 8.3. Making Objects Support the Context-Management Protocol
    • 8.4. Saving Memory When Creating a Large Number of Instances
    • 8.5. Encapsulating Names in a Class
    • 8.6. Creating Managed Attributes
    • 8.7. Calling a Method on a Parent Class
    • 8.8. Extending a Property in a Subclass
    • 8.9. Creating a New Kind of Class or Instance Attribute
    • 8.10. Using Lazily Computed Properties
    • 8.11. Simplifying the Initialization of Data Structures
    • 8.12. Defining an Interface or Abstract Base Class
    • 8.13. Implementing a Data Model or Type System
    • 8.14. Implementing Custom Containers
    • 8.15. Delegating Attribute Access
    • 8.16. Defining More Than One Constructor in a Class
    • 8.17. Creating an Instance Without Invoking init
    • 8.18. Extending Classes with Mixins
    • 8.19. Implementing Stateful Objects or State Machines
    • 8.20. Calling a Method on an Object Given the Name As a String
    • 8.21. Implementing the Visitor Pattern
    • 8.22. Implementing the Visitor Pattern Without Recursion
    • 8.23. Managing Memory in Cyclic Data Structures
    • 8.24. Making Classes Support Comparison Operations
    • 8.25. Creating Cached Instances
  • 9. Metaprogramming
    • 9.1. Putting a Wrapper Around a Function
    • 9.2. Preserving Function Metadata When Writing Decorators
    • 9.3. Unwrapping a Decorator
    • 9.4. Defining a Decorator That Takes Arguments
    • 9.5. Defining a Decorator with User Adjustable Attributes
    • 9.6. Defining a Decorator That Takes an Optional Argument
    • 9.7. Enforcing Type Checking on a Function Using a Decorator
    • 9.8. Defining Decorators As Part of a Class
    • 9.9. Defining Decorators As Classes
    • 9.10. Applying Decorators to Class and Static Methods
    • 9.11. Writing Decorators That Add Arguments to Wrapped Functions
    • 9.12. Using Decorators to Patch Class Definitions
    • 9.13. Using a Metaclass to Control Instance Creation
    • 9.14. Capturing Class Attribute Definition Order
    • 9.15. Defining a Metaclass That Takes Optional Arguments
    • 9.16. Enforcing an Argument Signature on *args and **kwargs
    • 9.17. Enforcing Coding Conventions in Classes
    • 9.18. Defining Classes Programmatically
    • 9.19. Initializing Class Members at Definition Time
    • 9.20. Implementing Multiple Dispatch with Function Annotations
    • 9.21. Avoiding Repetitive Property Methods
    • 9.22. Defining Context Managers the Easy Way
    • 9.23. Executing Code with Local Side Effects
    • 9.24. Parsing and Analyzing Python Source
    • 9.25. Disassembling Python Byte Code
  • 10. Modules and Packages
    • 10.1. Making a Hierarchical Package of Modules
    • 10.2. Controlling the Import of Everything
    • 10.3. Importing Package Submodules Using Relative Names
    • 10.4. Splitting a Module into Multiple Files
    • 10.5. Making Separate Directories of Code Import Under a Common Namespace
    • 10.6. Reloading Modules
    • 10.7. Making a Directory or Zip File Runnable As a Main Script
    • 10.8. Reading Datafiles Within a Package
    • 10.9. Adding Directories to sys.path
    • 10.10. Importing Modules Using a Name Given in a String
    • 10.11. Loading Modules from a Remote Machine Using Import Hooks
    • 10.12. Patching Modules on Import
    • 10.13. Installing Packages Just for Yourself
    • 10.14. Creating a New Python Environment
    • 10.15. Distributing Packages
  • 11. Network and Web Programming
    • 11.1. Interacting with HTTP Services As a Client
    • 11.2. Creating a TCP Server
    • 11.3. Creating a UDP Server
    • 11.4. Generating a Range of IP Addresses from a CIDR Address
    • 11.5. Creating a Simple REST-Based Interface
    • 11.6. Implementing a Simple Remote Procedure Call with XML-RPC
    • 11.7. Communicating Simply Between Interpreters
    • 11.8. Implementing Remote Procedure Calls
    • 11.9. Authenticating Clients Simply
    • 11.10. Adding SSL to Network Services
    • 11.11. Passing a Socket File Descriptor Between Processes
    • 11.12. Understanding Event-Driven I/O
    • 11.13. Sending and Receiving Large Arrays
  • 12. Concurrency
    • 12.1. Starting and Stopping Threads
    • 12.2. Determining If a Thread Has Started
    • 12.3. Communicating Between Threads
    • 12.4. Locking Critical Sections
    • 12.5. Locking with Deadlock Avoidance
    • 12.6. Storing Thread-Specific State
    • 12.7. Creating a Thread Pool
    • 12.8. Performing Simple Parallel Programming
    • 12.9. Dealing with the GIL (and How to Stop Worrying About It)
    • 12.10. Defining an Actor Task
    • 12.11. Implementing Publish/Subscribe Messaging
    • 12.12. Using Generators As an Alternative to Threads
    • 12.13. Polling Multiple Thread Queues
    • 12.14. Launching a Daemon Process on Unix
  • 13. Utility Scripting and System Administration
    • 13.1. Accepting Script Input via Redirection, Pipes, or Input Files
    • 13.2. Terminating a Program with an Error Message
    • 13.3. Parsing Command-Line Options
    • 13.4. Prompting for a Password at Runtime
    • 13.5. Getting the Terminal Size
    • 13.6. Executing an External Command and Getting Its Output
    • 13.7. Copying or Moving Files and Directories
    • 13.8. Creating and Unpacking Archives
    • 13.9. Finding Files by Name
    • 13.10. Reading Configuration Files
    • 13.11. Adding Logging to Simple Scripts
    • 13.12. Adding Logging to Libraries
    • 13.13. Making a Stopwatch Timer
    • 13.14. Putting Limits on Memory and CPU Usage
    • 13.15. Launching a Web Browser
  • 14. Testing, Debugging, and Exceptions
    • 14.1. Testing Output Sent to stdout
    • 14.2. Patching Objects in Unit Tests
    • 14.3. Testing for Exceptional Conditions in Unit Tests
    • 14.4. Logging Test Output to a File
    • 14.5. Skipping or Anticipating Test Failures
    • 14.6. Handling Multiple Exceptions
    • 14.7. Catching All Exceptions
    • 14.8. Creating Custom Exceptions
    • 14.9. Raising an Exception in Response to Another Exception
    • 14.10. Reraising the Last Exception
    • 14.11. Issuing Warning Messages
    • 14.12. Debugging Basic Program Crashes
    • 14.13. Profiling and Timing Your Program
    • 14.14. Making Your Programs Run Faster
  • 15. C Extensions
    • 15.1. Accessing C Code Using ctypes
    • 15.2. Writing a Simple C Extension Module
    • 15.3. Writing an Extension Function That Operates on Arrays
    • 15.4. Managing Opaque Pointers in C Extension Modules
    • 15.5. Defining and Exporting C APIs from Extension Modules
    • 15.6. Calling Python from C
    • 15.7. Releasing the GIL in C Extensions
    • 15.8. Mixing Threads from C and Python
    • 15.9. Wrapping C Code with Swig
    • 15.10. Wrapping Existing C Code with Cython
    • 15.11. Using Cython to Write High-Performance Array Operations
    • 15.12. Turning a Function Pointer into a Callable
    • 15.13. Passing NULL-Terminated Strings to C Libraries
    • 15.14. Passing Unicode Strings to C Libraries
    • 15.15. Converting C Strings to Python
    • 15.16. Working with C Strings of Dubious Encoding
    • 15.17. Passing Filenames to C Extensions
    • 15.18. Passing Open Files to C Extensions
    • 15.19. Reading File-Like Objects from C
    • 15.20. Consuming an Iterable from C
    • 15.21. Diagnosing Segmentation Faults
  • A. Further Reading
    • Online Resources
    • Books for Learning Python
    • Advanced Books
  • Index
  • About the Authors
  • Colophon
  • Copyright
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